A hen will usually take 24-26 hours to produce an egg, and thirty minutes later she will start all over again. The egg produced will have a clear albumen (egg white) and a yellow colored yolk. Most often, eggs have only one yolk however, a hen can produce double yolked eggs, or an egg with no yolk at all. Eggs can range in color from white to brown to pink, or even speckled, but the shell color has nothing to do with the egg’s nutritional value. The color of the egg is more directly related to the color of the hen; hens with white earlobes and white feathers will lay white eggs, while hens with red earlobes and feathers will lay brown eggs. Eggs are graded into sizes: small, medium, large, extra-large, and jumbo. Most recipes call for the use of large eggs which are approximately 2 ounces.

Many commercial egg companies raise their hens in small cages crowded with other hens which restricts their natural behavior. Animal welfare advocates take issue with the conditions these hens are raised in as they are debeaked to prevent pecking of other hen’s eggs, and cannot build nests or dust bathe (normal chicken behavior). Many laying hens are slaughtered at one year of age because their production begins to decline. Some consumers choose to buy eggs produced by free range hens to support farmers who give the chickens outdoor access instead of keeping them in tight cages.

Chicken eggs, while inexpensive, provide very high quality protein and numerous vitamins and minerals. A single large chicken egg contains 7 grams of protein, and all of the egg’s vitamins are found in the egg yolk. Protein helps to stabilize glucose levels, builds lean muscle, and provides a feeling of satiety. Eggs are one of the few foods to naturally contain vitamin D, and also contain vitamins A and E. The yolk provides choline, a nutrient that is essential for proper brain development. Choline is especially important for pregnant and lactating women to ensure healthy brain development in a fetus or newborn baby.

Although the egg contains very important nutrients such as calcium, phosphorous, and potassium, it also contains about 300 mg of cholesterol, which is two-thirds the daily recommended amount, and about 10 grams of fat. Researchers are still debating over the health risks of eggs because although a large egg contains about 10 grams of fat, it is mostly unsaturated fat which is far less harmful than saturated fat. Also, one study showed that the human body did not absorb much of the cholesterol from eggs, and another study suggested that eggs lowered the bad LDL cholesterol in patients but raised the good HDL cholesterol levels.

Though egg shells act as a seal against the entrance of bacteria, broken eggs or those laid by unhealthy hens can present certain risks. One main egg related concern is salmonella. Experts advise to cook eggs thoroughly before eating because the heat will kill any harmful bacteria or other organisms present. Hens that are kept in very sanitary conditions have a very low incidence of salmonella, and on average, only one in 30,000 eggs produced will actually harbor the salmonella bacteria. Still, thoroughly cooking an egg will remove any possibility of ingesting harmful bacteria. Even healthy, cooked eggs can present a problem for certain individuals because eggs commonly provoke an allergic reaction, especially in children. Doctors actually recommend feeding only the yolk to children because many are allergic to the egg white. If exposure is kept low, many kids will grow out of the egg allergy.

While eggs are a great breakfast food, providing energy and protein to start the day, they are also found in yummy desserts like custard and meringue, used in protest (egging), and decorated as an Easter holiday tradition. Though egg consumption declined to a low in 1991 because of lifestyle changes, it is now increasing as more people become aware of the health benefits that eggs offer. Eggs are an important dietary staple throughout the world, especially in Japan, Canada, and Korea (leading egg importers), and a whole carton of eggs can still be purchased for approximately one dollar.

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Flavor is Always First

To get started, first determine what the flavor of your homemade dinner buns will be. The possibilities really are endless, ranging from no particular taste to herb dinner buns, whole grain hearty-tasting dinner buns, or even fruited dinner buns for a more exotic flavor.

When you’re flavoring the dinner buns with herbs, you’ll need about 2 to 3 tablespoons of an herb mixture to add to the basic recipe. When creating whole grain hearty-tasting dinner buns, you’ll substitute whole grain flours such as whole wheat, rye, buckwheat, spelt, or barley/rice flour for one half to three quarters of the regular unbleached flour in the basic recipe. And when you’re creating fruited dinner buns for a more exotic flavor, you can add 1/2 cup of currants to the basic recipe and consider replacing the milk with a juice such as apple, pineapple or a juice blend you’re fond of.

Your basic homemade dinner roll recipe is:
1-1/2 cups fluid, usually milk
4 cups all-purpose unbleached flour
1/4 cup oil or 3 to 5 tablespoons butter
3 tablespoons sugar or honey
1 teaspoon salt
2 packages active dry yeast

Combine your liquid and oil in a small saucepan and warm it over low heat until it reaches about 125 degrees Fahrenheit.

In your mixing bowl, add 2/3 of the flour, all the sugar, salt and yeast. Mix thoroughly. Add the warm liquid and mix again.

Add the remaining flour a few tablespoons at a time, mixing and kneading as you go. The dough will be sticky at first but as you add more flour, the dough will become shiny and elastic.

Place the dough in a well-oiled bowl. Cover it with plastic wrap and a towel. Set the bowl in a warm spot, away from drafts or high heat. Let it rise for about 15 to 20 minutes.

Turn the dough onto a floured board or onto the floured countertop. Punch it down and knead for about 5 minutes.

Next comes the fun part when you can form the dough into whatever shape you want. If you want round rolls, cut the dough into smaller portions and form them into rolls. Place each roll onto a greased baking sheet, leaving about 2 inches between rolls. Some people opt to use muffin pans.

If you want S-shaped rolls, shape the rolls into an S-shape before placing onto the baking sheet. Sometimes cooks decide to create bread braids by forming three long strips of rolled dough into a braid as if they were braiding hair. Brush the tops of the homemade dinner rolls with butter to encourage browning. Cover them, let them rise again in a warm spot for about 20 minutes.

Finally it’s time to bake them once they’ve reached the height and shape you intended them to become. Don’t expect them to rise much in the oven. Bake at 425 degrees Fahrenheit for about 12 to 15 minutes. Cool them on a wire rack.

Homemade dinner rolls are always a hit at any holiday party. Don’t go without them!

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Cornstarch thickens with a satiny smoothness and glossy appearance. It adds no taste of its own to mask the flavor of foods. Recipes thickened with cornstarch have a brighter, more translucent appearance than those thickened with flour. Cornstarch also blends more easily with cold liquids than flour because it doesn’t absorb liquid until it’s cooked.

Gluten is not present in cornstarch, which makes it an excellent substitute for flour in many recipes. Many people are sensitive to gluten and require gluten-free food preparation. In many baked goods like bread and cake, however, gluten plays an important structural role, and gluten-containing ingredients, like flour, are necessary. Check the recipe to see if cornstarch can be used as a substitute for flour, before preparing.

Cornstarch is commonly used as a thickening agent for puddings, sauces, and soups. Mixing it with a granular solid such as granulated sugar will also help it disperse into a liquid. Sauces thickened with cornstarch tend to be clear, rather than opaque, as with flour-based sauces. However, the sauces will thin if cooked too long or stirred too vigorously. Cornstarch is used in combination with flour in many European cake and cookie recipes because it produces a finer-textured, more compact cake or cookie than flour alone.

Cornstarch is used as a thickener for gravies, sauces and glazes, soups, stews and casseroles. It also thickens pies and is an essential ingredient in cornstarch puddings and cake fillings. In cakes, cookies and pastries, cornstarch is often mixed with flour to produce more tender baked goods. Additionally, it is used to coat foods before frying, and as an ingredient in batters. Most of the packaged pudding mixes supermarkets and grocery stores include cornstarch. Cornstarch puddings can be made at home, using a double boiler. The most basic pudding uses only milk, sugar, cornstarch, and a flavoring agent.

Cornstarch has the same “thickening power” as arrowroot, potato starch and tapioca, and you should substitute the same amount. Cornstarch has twice the thickening power of flour, so it is necessary to use only half as much. The following conversion chart can be used to calculate the correct amount of cornstarch to use.

Conversion Chart (Flour to Cornstarch)

Cornstarch works very well in Asian recipes. It can be tastefully used in everything from Plum Dipping Sauce to Stir Fry mixes.

TIP: A Stir-Fry Sauce Mix may be frozen in tightly covered containers in 3/4-cup portions for up to 3 months. Thaw and shake before using.

Cornstarch also has many uses in the manufacturing of environmentally friendly products. In 2004, the Japanese company Pioneer announced a biodegradable Blue-Ray disc made out of cornstarch.

Other uses of cornstarch are as laundry starch, in sizing paper, in making adhesives, and in cooking. Corn syrup and corn sugar are produced by the hydrolysis of cornstarch.

Some people have used cornstarch as a replacement for talcum powder. Cornstarch is a great help- for personal care because it absorbs moisture. It is used for powders, skin-cleansing milk, deodorant, and a sweaty shoe solution. When using cornstarch as a skin cleanser, combine equal parts of cornstarch and glycerin with one teaspoon of rum and a few drops of a favorite essential for fragrance. Apply some of the mixture on your finger and massage into your skin. Rinse with warm water.

For an oily skin and shine absorber, combine 1 tablespoon of cornstarch with kaolin (white clay). Dust on oily skin areas.

The ubiquitous cornstarch can be used for absorbing moisture from sweaty feet by sprinkling a little cornstarch in your shoes before you put them on. The cornstarch will absorb moisture.

For a body friendly cornstarch deodorant, combine cornstarch with some finely ground lavender and pat under your arms to keep your underarms dry on hot days.

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The name chocolate comes from the Aztecs of Mexico, and is derived from xocolatl which means ‘bitter water.’ Chocolate actually comes from the cacao bean which grows on trees indigenous to South and Central America. Discovered in 600 A.D, the cacao bean was originally used to make a bitter chocolate beverage for important members of Mayan and Aztec societies, and the beans were even used as a form of currency. To make xocolatl, the Maya and Aztecs would grind cacao beans and add water, chile peppers, corn, and spices. Aztec legend states that wisdom and power come from eating the fruits of the cacao tree.

Today, the leading producer of the cacao bean is Africa, where it is still grown and harvested by smaller farming operations that do much of the work by hand. Cacao beans are seeds of pod-forming fruits that range from lemon yellow to deep red. When the seeds are harvested and put out to dry in the sun, certain cacao farmers will do a dance over the seeds to signal the end of harvest. High quality chocolate manufacturers will actually choose their cacao beans in a similar way to how a winery will choose its grape varieties.

Annual consumption of chocolate, per capita, is approximately 12 pounds per person, with consumers spending over seven billion dollars per year on chocolate! Switzerland tops all other chocolate consumers at an annual rate of 22.4 pounds per person. Peak chocolate sales are seen between Thanksgiving and New Year, and right before Valentines Day. Chocolate makers use almost half of the world’s almonds, 20% of the world’s peanuts, and 8% of the world’s sugar. Chocolate has over 500 flavor components (twice that of vanilla), and has a melting point just below the temperature of a human body – that’s why it melts in the mouth!

The Spanish explorer Cortes is to thank for modifying the Aztec’s bitter chocolate beverage into a much sweeter drink; he (and his men) experimented by adding cane sugar, cinnamon, and even vanilla to make the beverage more appealing to the European palate. As chocolate spread from Spain to the rest of Europe, the demand for cacao beans increased dramatically, and colonies and plantations were built to keep up with demand. Most of these plantations used wage laborers and enslaved people to produce and harvest the cacao. It was only in 1910 that William Cadbury rallied chocolate manufacturers to boycott cacao beans grown by slaves – they would only buy beans from cacao farmers that provided fair working conditions.

The industrial age revolutionized the production of chocolate which to that point had been made by hand in small shops; a large amount of chocolate could be made at a very low cost, making chocolate more affordable to the public. Chocolate manufacturers like Daniel Peter and Henri Nestle experimented by adding condensed milk and other ingredients to chocolate, producing a smoother, creamier candy that is still enjoyed today. Hershey started making chocolate covered caramels in 1893, and Mars began producing the Milky Way shortly thereafter.

Chocolate is supplied as a ration for astronauts during space exploration, and was supplied to soldiers during World War 1. Actually, American forces introduced chocolate to Japan during that same time. Queen Victoria began the ritual of giving chocolate to soldiers when she sent gift baskets to armed forces in the late 19th century as Christmas treats. Asian populations consume small amounts of chocolate, and countries like Ghana rarely use the cacao beans because they are worth more as a traded commodity.

Though chocolate is high in fat, studies have shown that fat from chocolate does not raise cholesterol levels. Chocolate is high in calories so it is a good source of energy – just one chocolate chip provides enough energy for an adult to walk about 150 feet. Chocolate contains a small amount of caffeine and also contains theobromine, which can be lethal to dogs and other animals in large doses. Store chocolate securely on a high shelf to ensure pets cannot reach it; it smells just as good to them as it does to us!

Chocolate has been around for centuries, and has undergone quite a transformation from an ancient bitter beverage to the chocolate that we know and love today. Go ahead and celebrate your newly found knowledge of chocolate trivia by indulging in a piece – only then can you really appreciate all that chocolate has to offer!

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The very first people to discover cacao were the Maya who took the cacao tree from the rainforest and planted it in their backyards to grow and harvest the cacao beans. The Mayans would grind the beans into a paste, and add water, cornmeal, and chile peppers to make a spicy yet bitter chocolate drink. The Maya had no access to sugar, so the first chocolate beverages (known as chocolatl) were not sweet. Around 1400, the Aztecs discovered cacao through trade with the Maya. The Aztecs actually used the cacao beans as a form of currency, demanding that citizens and conquered peoples supply cacao beans as payment. In both Aztec and Maya religious ceremonies priests would offer cacao beans to the gods. Chocolate drinks were served during these religious ceremonies as well. For the Maya, chocolate drinks were consumed by everyone occasionally, but were often consumed by royalty. In Aztec society, mainly rulers, soldiers, and other high status individuals could drink the chocolate beverage.

Spanish conquistadors reached Mexico in approximately 1521 where they observed the consumption of chocolate among the Aztec people. The Spaniards understood the value of the cacao bean and brought it back to Europe with them, making the chocolate beverage for European royalty. When the cacao was shipped back to Europe, the Aztec drink was too bitter for Europeans, so they added sugar cane, vanilla, and even cinnamon, and began heating the chocolate concoction to be enjoyed warm. Cacao beans were an expensive import, so the chocolate drink was a status symbol among the upper class people of Europe who would drink the chocolate out of elaborate porcelain and silver cups. Eventually, cacao beans became available to the rest of Europe when the price of cacao beans dropped, and the hot chocolate beverage became wildly popular.

To keep up with demand for the cacao bean, Spaniards set up colonial plantations using slaves and wage laborers to grow and harvest the cacao and sugar cane. Small European shops would make the beans into chocolate drinks, and eventually one company called Fry & Sons introduced solid chocolate in 1847. Then in 1876, Daniel Peter of Switzerland developed a way to add milk to chocolate, giving the chocolate a sweeter flavor and smoother texture, creating milk chocolate. A steam engine was introduced during the Industrial Revolution of the 1700s which ground large amounts of cacao beans and processed them into solid chocolate. This mass production method made chocolate affordable to the majority of the public for the very first time. As chocolate became more inexpensive, manufacturers began advertising chocolate heavily to women and children. Chocolate for breakfast was encouraged to provide a boost of energy, and many people began to use chocolate in desserts and confections.

Today, most chocolate is processed and manufactured by machinery, but the cacao beans are still farmed and harvested basically the same way as the Aztecs and Maya farmed them – by hand. In 1910, William Cadbury brought together a group of American and English chocolate companies who refused to buy chocolate from cacao plantations with harsh working conditions. Still, some cacao plantations, most of which are found in West Africa, use slave labor when the prices of cacao beans fall.

Chocolate is still related to holidays such as Easter and Christmas, and is enjoyed throughout the world. It is provided as a ration for the United States military who introduced chocolate to Japan during World War 2, and is even used in medicines and cosmetics. Chocolate is continually studied for possible health benefits, and has been found to provide flavonoids and antioxidants that protect the body from disease. Many chocolate companies have come and gone, but a few manufacturers such as Cadbury, Hershey, and Mars remain, all of which began in the late 1800s to early 1900s.

A tale beginning in the depth of the American rainforests over 2000 years ago, the history of chocolate includes religious worship, slavery, high-society snobbery, and a transformation in production methods to make chocolate available to the masses. The same cacao bean that was so highly regarded by the Maya and Aztecs still remains a beloved treat of modern society.

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There is a reason that Thanksgiving is associated with pumpkin pies. It was a way to make use of the leftover pumpkins from Halloween in colonial America. Remember, our ancestors who colonized this country had a tough time, with limited supplies to sustain them. They did their best not to waste anything, and to derive the most use from all of their supplies. Food was no exception. Even carved pumpkins were roasted and eaten. Pumpkin seeds were toasted and consumed as well.

It may surprise a lot of people to know that there is more to making a pumpkin pie than just dumping a can of pumpkin, milk and spices into a pie crust, and baking it. If you have never experienced the wonderful treat of fresh pumpkin pie, you have really missed out on something special. There is no comparison between fresh and canned pumpkin. It’s like the difference between fresh baked bread, right out of the oven, and store bought, plastic wrapped bread full of lecithin, guar gum and completely dead. Fresh pumpkin pie is full of life, as opposed to canned pumpkins, which have had every last bit of life cooked out of them.

Making pumpkin pie from scratch is within even a modest cooks means. It just calls for a bit of knowledge, and some development of technique.

Pumpkins are a gourd-like squash, and belong to the genus Cucurbita, and the family of Curcurbitaceae. This includes all varieties of pumpkins, as well as the various squash species. In Australia, the word ‘pumpkin’ refers to winter squash. The origin of pumpkins is murky, but they are native to north America. Seeds have been found in Mexico dating back to between 5500-7000 BC. The ancient Greeks called them pepon, meaning “large melon”. Later, the French slurred the word into pompon. The English twisted this word into pumpion. The early American colonists, not to be outdone, further stretched the word into its modern form, pumpkin, or in the South, punkin.

Several varieties of pumpkin can be used for pies. The standard pumpkin sold at Halloween is the Lumina. These have been cultivated specifically for carving, with a thick skin, and very fibrous pulp. They can be used for pies with just a little extra preparation. Jack O Lanterns have already been scooped out. For unused pumpkins, split them and scoop out the stringy insides (but don’t throw the seeds away. Separate them. They can be toasted and eaten, or ground up and used in soups, stews and sauces for wonderful added flavor, and as a thickener). Discard the stringy stuff. Leave the skins on, and cut the pumpkins into 1”-1-1/2” chunks, place them in a pot and cover them to 1” in water. Simmer for 20 minutes, or until the pumpkin is tender. Drain, cool and peel off the skin. Now, you can use a food processor, or a potato-masher to mash the pumpkin into a semi-smooth pulp. Now it is ready to use in any fresh pumpkin pie recipe. If you are not going to use it immediately, you can freeze it for up to a year in a
Zip-Lok freezer bag.

Other varieties that make excellent pumpkin pies are:

• Cinderellas-these are beautiful French Heirloom pumpkins. This is the pumpkin that Cinderella’s coach was supposed to be made from. They have firm succulent flesh, with a good flavor.
• Pink Banana-this is a delectable pumpkin that makes a sensational pie. As the name suggests, they are lighter colored than standard pumpkins, and somewhat elongated. The pulp is finer grained and sweeter than other varieties. They are seldom seen whole in stores. They are usually chunked, and wrapped in plastic. Try to find whole fresh ones for an absolutely divine pie.
• Sugar Pie-this variety is as perfect as you could ask for in a cooking pumpkin. They are thin skinned, finer grained, and much sweeter than Luminas. They are also much drier, making for a more stable pie filling.
• Blue Hubbard-this is the pumpkin of choice for baking in New England. It has fine-textured, orange-yellow flesh that is medium dry, and medium sweet. It is perfect for baking, and soups.

Whatever type of pumpkin you decide to use, you need to select ones that are fully mature, with a good hard skin. The way to check them is to poke the skin with  your fingernail. If it does not crack, the pumpkin is mature enough. You can also thump them, much like a water melon, and listen for the right “thud”. Another way is to heft them. A pumpkin with some weight to it for it’s size will have good dense pulp. Never carry a pumpkin by its stem. It can break off and leave an otherwise good pumpkin with an open wound, inviting infection and rot. Always check your pumpkins for dark and soft spots. Also look for nicks in the skin. The smallest nick can invite rot in. Be sure to check the bottoms, where they have been resting on the cool damp ground. If you are not going to use them immediately, be sure to store them where hungry animals, and insects will not snack on them.

Now you are ready to try the best fresh pumpkin pie recipe you’ve ever tasted:

Fresh Pumpkin Pie Recipe

This makes two 9-inch pies, so you will need 2 of your favorite pie crusts.

2 cups mashed cooked pumpkin
1 can of evaporated milk
2 eggs, beaten
1 cup brown sugar
¼ cup honey
1 tsp fresh ground cinnamon
1 tsp fresh ground nutmeg
1 tsp fresh ground ginger
½ tsp salt
2 uncooked pie crusts

– Preheat oven to 400ºF
– Make your crusts, and line two 9-inch pie pans with them.
– In a mixer (or if doing it by hand, a large mixing bowl), on medium speed, beat pumpkin, milk, eggs, brown sugar, cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger and salt until smooth. Dividing evenly between the two crusts, pour the mixture into the crust-lined pie pans.
– Bake for 40 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted in the centers comes out clean.
– Allow to cool for 20 minutes before slicing
– Garnish with Cool Whip, or whipping cream, and lots of hot, rich coffee.

Bakers Trick #1: If you have trouble with the edges of the pie crust getting too dark before the whole pie is done, cut foil into thin strips and lay these over the crust edge for the first 20-25 minutes of baking. Then remove them, and continue baking until the pies are done.

Bakers Trick #2: If you have trouble transferring the crust to a pie pan without tearing it, do it the way the pros do. Dust the crust lightly with flour, flip it over and dust the other side. Now fold one half over the other, then fold it again the other way, until you have a quarter wedge. Put a very thin layer of oil, butter, margarine, shortening, or non-stick baking spray on the pie pans. Now gently pick the folded crust up, lay it in one corner of the pie pan, and gently unfold it. Adjust it until it is centered, and you now have a perfect crust-lined pie pan. Repeat for the other pan.

Bonus Recipe

The Perfect Pie Crust – (Pâtè Briseè)

There are a few tricks of the trade to make a World-Class pie crust. Like most outstanding cooking, it’s more than just a list of ingredients.

Bakers Trick #3: For an extra-flaky pie crust, use butter, and shortening. The butter makes a deliciously flavored crust, and the shortening makes a very flaky crust. Mixing them gives you the best of both worlds.

Bakers trick #4: You don’t want to blend the ingredients. You just want to coat the fat (butter and shortening) with flour. Do not over work the dough. The less you can manipulate it, the better.

Bakers Trick #5: The colder the better. Everything should be chilled before you start. Place the flour, shortening, and butter in the freezer for 20 minutes before using. Place cold water in a large mixing cup with ice in it, and let it set in the refrigerator for 20 minutes before using it. This is how you make a killer crust…

2-1/2 cups all purpose flour
¼ cup shortening
2 sticks butter
1 cup ice-cold water
1 tsp salt
1 tsp sugar (optional)

All ingredients should be well chilled before you start. Putting the crust together must be done quickly, before the ingredients warm up, so have everything ready and easily at hand before you start. Have a pastry cutter close by and ready to go.

Cut the butter and shortening into the flour, salt and sugar, with the pastry cutter, or two butter knives (don’t use your hands. Their heat will warm the ingredients), as quickly as possible. You want it to be pebbly-looking, with pea-sized grains, or smaller. With a mixing spoon, and a tablespoon, stir in the cold water a tablespoon at a time, until the dough just starts to stick together. Check it by squeezing some together in your hand. If it sticks, then it’s ready. If not, keep going until it does.

Form the dough into a ball, then divide the dough into two equal halves, and wrap each in Saran Wrap (or equivalent). Refrigerate them for one hour. (Even this little amount of handling can activate the gluten in the dough. Great for bread, bad for crust. It needs to settle down and rest a bit before continuing.)

Roll each ball of dough out (one at a time) to approximately 1/8” thick. Place your pie pan upside-down over the dough, and cut a circle 1-1/2” larger than the outside edge of the pan. Turn the pan over, lightly oil, grease,  or spray the pan with non-stick baking spray, and transfer the crust to the pan. Do the same for the other pan and ball of dough. Set both pans in the refrigerator for 15-30 minutes to let the dough settle-down once more. Now, fill the shells and bake.

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